Abstract

The alarming rise of antibiotic-resistant pathogens represents a critical challenge to global healthcare systems, demanding innovative and integrative therapeutic solutions. This review explores the multifaceted management of pathogenic threats by synthesizing insights from antibiotic resistance mechanisms, biocatalytic strategies, and nanoparticle-based therapies. Antibiotic resistance, driven by bacterial genetic adaptability and exacerbated by clinical and agricultural misuse, renders many conventional treatments increasingly ineffective. Understanding these resistance mechanisms is essential for designing countermeasures. Biocatalysis offers a promising route for antimicrobial development by leveraging natural enzymes to selectively disrupt resistant bacteria, presenting opportunities for precision therapies that minimize collateral damage to host microbiota. Additionally, nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful tool in antimicrobial intervention. Due to their unique physicochemical properties, nanoparticles can penetrate biofilms, induce oxidative stress, and serve as effective delivery vehicles for existing antibiotics, significantly improving their potency against multidrug-resistant strains. This review highlights the potential of combining these complementary approaches antibiotics, enzyme-based biocatalysis, and nanoparticle therapeutics to forge synergistic treatments that can overcome current therapeutic limitations and slow the spread of resistance. Furthermore, recent interdisciplinary research underscores the value of integrating immunological insights, novel biomarkers, and microbial-derived compounds to refine infection control strategies. By providing a comprehensive perspective on this evolving field, this review aims to inspire future research that bridges molecular biology, nanotechnology, and clinical medicine to strengthen global responses against pathogenic threats.

Keywords: Antibiotic Resistance, Biocatalysis, Nanoparticles, Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria, Antimicrobial Therapy.