1. Introduction

Ensuring the health and safety of workers is a critical component of any infrastructure development project. In Bangladesh, the construction sector plays a central role in economic growth and urbanization, yet it heavily depends on manual labor, leaving workers vulnerable to occupational hazards (Hossain & Ahmed, 2019; Mamin, Dey, & Das, 2019). Despite the existence of regulatory frameworks such as the Bangladesh Labour Act (Bangladesh Labor Act, 2006; ILO, 2013) and the Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC, 2006), the practical implementation of occupational health and safety (OHS) standards often remains inconsistent, particularly on construction sites where supervision and awareness are limited (BILS, n.d.; The Daily Star, 2017). Laborers are routinely exposed to risks including falls from heights, electrocution, and accidents involving heavy machinery. Studies indicate that inadequate provision of personal protective equipment, poor site management, and lack of safety training contribute to high rates of work-related injuries and fatalities (Galib, Kabir, Abdullah, & Khan, 2019; Hossain & Ahmed, 2019). Weak regulatory enforcement and insufficient monitoring further exacerbate these challenges, particularly for projects managed by local contractors or smaller informal companies (World Bank, n.d.-a; DMTCL, n.d.). Addressing these issues requires a multi-faceted approach, including strict adherence to safety protocols, regular risk assessments, and cultivating a culture of safety among workers, managers, and contractors (Robson et al., 2007; Qasim et al., 2014). Strengthening regulatory oversight, providing continuous worker education on OHS, and ensuring equitable treatment of laborers are essential steps for safeguarding their well-being (Rahimi, 1995; IFC, 2006). This study investigates OHS practices in three ongoing construction projects in Dhaka, involving both national and multinational contractors. Using a mixed-method approach, primary data were collected from 50 participants through surveys, three focus group discussions, and six key informant interviews, while secondary data were sourced from official project reports and regulatory documents (Yin, 2014; World Bank, n.d.-b; DMTCL, n.d.). The research aims to evaluate the effectiveness of labor safeguards, identify discrepancies in OHS implementation between national and international contractors, and highlight gaps in data accuracy. Preliminary findings indicate that multinational contractors generally adhere more strictly to OHS standards than national contractors. Although domestic contractors have improved their capacity to manage labor safety, significant gaps remain in ensuring safe working conditions, fair treatment, and comprehensive labor management (Hossain & Ahmed, 2019; Mamin et al., 2019). Additionally, discrepancies between primary observations and secondary reports reveal challenges in data reliability. To address these issues, the study recommends strengthening OHS policies, improving enforcement and monitoring, providing capacity-building programs for domestic contractors, and enhancing data validation processes. Implementing these measures can help reduce occupational hazards and create safer working environments for laborers engaged in Bangladesh’s infrastructure development (South Australia Government, n.d.; World Bank, n.d.-c).

The objective of this study is to evaluate the labor safeguards and occupational health and safety (OHS) practices implemented by contractors in Bangladesh. Specifically, the study focuses on assessing how contractors ensure the fair treatment of workers through transparent recruitment processes, accessible grievance mechanisms, safe working conditions, and effective labor management. Additionally, the study aims to provide recommendations for enhancing existing policies and guidelines to better protect workers and promote a safer, more equitable working environment.

2. Methodology

2.1. Approach and Study Design

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a comprehensive assessment of occupational health and safety (OHS) practices and labor safeguards in construction projects in Dhaka, Bangladesh (Yin, 2014; Robson et al., 2007). Primary data were collected through key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), and individual interviews, while secondary data were sourced from project documents, donor and partner websites, and relevant literature. Additional insights were gathered through personal communications with project focal points and review of progress reports, ensuring a robust and reliable understanding of OHS practices (World Bank, n.d.-b; DMTCL, n.d.).

2.2. Study Area and Population

The research was conducted in Dhaka city, focusing on three representative infrastructure projects: the Dhaka City Neighborhood Upgradation Project (Puran Dhaka), the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT-Line 6) in Uttara, and the Dhaka Elevated Expressway in Banani. These projects, managed respectively by the Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC), Dhaka Mass Transit Company Limited (DMTCL), and the Bangladesh Bridge Authority (BBA), were selected to capture diverse construction environments (World Bank, n.d.-a; DMTCL, n.d.). The study population included contractors, project authorities, and both male and female laborers involved in these projects, providing a comprehensive overview of OHS implementation across different contractor types and work settings (Hossain & Ahmed, 2019; Mamin, Dey, & Das, 2019).

2.3. Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

The study combined quantitative tools, such as structured surveys, with qualitative methods including semi-structured interviews, FGDs, and KIIs. Qualitative methods allowed for an in-depth understanding of experiences and perceptions, while quantitative methods provided measurable data on OHS compliance and labor conditions. This combination enhanced the reliability and depth of the findings (Qasim et al., 2014; Robson et al., 2007).

2.4. Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data were collected through a review of project reports, official documents, and online resources from donors, project authorities, and partners. These documents included information on labor management, grievance mechanisms, safety protocols, environmental concerns, and gender inclusion. Additional literature, such as policy papers and research articles, were reviewed to provide context and support interpretation of primary data. Regular communication with project staff, consultants, and NGOs helped validate findings and provided updates on ongoing project operations (World Bank, n.d.-c; IFC, 2006).

2.5. Sample Size and Participants

Primary data collection involved 50 individual interviews with male and female laborers, encompassing both skilled and unskilled workers. Three FGDs, each comprising 13 participants, facilitated interactive discussions to explore collective perspectives on workplace safety, labor management, and gender-specific concerns. Additionally, six KIIs were conducted with three contractor representatives and three project authority officials to gain insight into regulatory compliance, labor management practices, and potential strategies for improving OHS (Yin, 2014).

2.6. Data Collection Tools

Semi-Structured Interview Questionnaire: Used to capture personal experiences, challenges, and perceptions of OHS practices. Both open- and close-ended questions ensured comprehensive data collection.

FGD Guide: Guided discussions on labor practices, workplace safety, and gender issues. FGDs were also used to validate survey and document findings.

KII Guide: Focused on labor management, policy adherence, and recommendations for enhancing OHS practices. Findings from surveys and FGDs were shared to inform discussion.

Demographic Form: Collected participant background information, including age, gender, skill level, and job role.

Consent Form: Ensured informed participation, confidentiality, and voluntary involvement (Olsson, 2011).

2.7. Data Analysis

Quantitative data were processed using MS Excel and Access software for descriptive analysis. Qualitative data were reviewed, coded, and triangulated with multiple sources to ensure accuracy, consistency, and reliability in interpretation (Robson et al., 2007; Yin, 2014). This comprehensive methodology ensured that the study captured both measurable indicators and nuanced insights into OHS practices, labor safeguards, and areas needing policy and operational improvements in Bangladesh’s construction sector.

3. Results and discussion

The demographic characteristics of the surveyed households provide a foundational understanding of the population under study (Table 1). Among the 270 individuals surveyed, males comprised 55.56% and females 44.44%, indicating a slightly higher representation of men. The age distribution reveals a relatively young population, with children aged 1–14 years constituting 25.93% and young adults aged 14–34 years making up 27.78% of respondents. Adults aged 35–55 years account for 23.15%, whereas those between 56–64 years represent 13.89%. Elderly individuals aged 65 years and above form the smallest group at 9.26%. This age structure reflects a dynamic community with a significant proportion of children and working-age adults, suggesting potential implications for labor availability, household responsibilities, and health needs. Marital status data show that just over half of respondents (50.93%) are married, while 45.37% are unmarried, and a minor proportion (3.70%) are divorced or widowed. This distribution suggests relative social stability and the presence of family-based support systems, which can influence household decision-making, economic activities, and the adoption of safety or health practices. In terms of health, an overwhelming majority (95.37%) reported no illness, with only 3.70% living with chronic conditions and less than 1% (0.93%) being handicapped. This indicates generally favorable health conditions among respondents, which could impact their work capacity and resilience. Religiously, all 50 surveyed households identified as Muslim, highlighting cultural and religious homogeneity, which may influence community norms, labor expectations, and health practices. Overall, the demographic profile portrays a young, healthy, family-oriented, and culturally cohesive population, offering essential context for interpreting subsequent findings (Table 1).

Table 1. Demographic Profile of Survey Respondents:

The economic profile of households, as captured in Table 2, illustrates both the income distribution and the underlying gender disparities. Among the 50 respondents considered for income analysis, 55% reported a household income of up to 20,000 BDT. Within this group, women slightly outnumber men, accounting for 30% versus 25%, reflecting greater female representation in the lowest-income category. This may indicate limited access to higher-paying employment for women or greater economic dependency on household income. The second-largest group, representing 35% of respondents, reported household incomes between 20,001 and 30,000 BDT, and all of these individuals were men, demonstrating a pronounced gender imbalance in attaining moderately higher income levels. Similarly, 10% of respondents earned between 30,001 and 40,000 BDT, again exclusively men. The absence of women in these higher brackets underscores structural inequities in income opportunities, which could result from socio-cultural norms, restricted mobility, or limited participation in formal employment. Overall, men represented 70% of the total respondents in the income analysis, with women at 30%, suggesting that men play a more prominent role in income generation, whereas women are more likely to be economically dependent. These findings reveal that a majority of households fall within the lowest income bracket, highlighting economic vulnerability and the necessity for inclusive labor policies and empowerment initiatives (Table 2).

Table 2. Income Level

Table 3. Local Housing Condition

Housing conditions, an essential indicator of living standards and socio-economic status, were also assessed (Table 3). Among the 50 households surveyed, 50% resided in tin-made houses. While commonly used in rural and semi-urban areas, these structures provide only moderate protection against adverse weather and are susceptible to long-term wear. This prevalence indicates that a significant portion of the community lives in modest, temporary accommodations. Additionally, 30% of households live in kutcha houses, which are constructed from natural materials like mud, bamboo, or thatch. These homes offer minimal protection against environmental challenges such as heavy rainfall or flooding, reflecting economic constraints and vulnerability. Semi-pucca houses, representing 20% of the sample, combine permanent materials such as brick walls with temporary roofs and provide more durability than kutcha houses, yet remain below the standard of fully pucca housing. Collectively, these findings underscore that the majority of households live in basic structures, highlighting a pressing need for sustainable housing interventions to enhance resilience and safety (Table 3).

3.1 Opportunities and Fair Treatment of Workers

Ensuring equitable treatment and opportunities in the workplace is a cornerstone of labor rights, emphasized by the International Labour Organization (ILO) through conventions such as the Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining (Convention No. 98), Equal Remuneration (Convention No. 100), and the Protection of Wages (Convention No. 95). The survey results, presented in Figure 1–5, provide a nuanced picture of labor practices in Bangladesh. Regarding wage orders, 60% of respondents reported receiving formal wage documentation, while 40% did not (Figure 1). Wage orders are critical for transparency and safeguard workers from arbitrary wage deductions or delays. The absence of wage orders for a substantial portion of respondents indicates lapses in compliance with ILO Convention No. 95, highlighting the risk of informal or exploitative practices.

Leave entitlements emerged as a significant gap, with only 10% of respondents reporting access to leave and 90% lacking such benefits (Figure 2). This stark deficit contravenes both national labor laws and ILO Convention No. 132 on Holidays with Pay, which guarantees paid annual leave. The absence of leave benefits may contribute to overwork, stress, and decreased productivity, demonstrating an urgent need to address workers’ welfare comprehensively. Encouragingly, 70% of respondents reported receiving equal pay for equal work (Figure 3), aligning with ILO Convention No. 100. However, 30%—predominantly women—experienced pay inequities, highlighting persistent gender disparities and the need for stronger enforcement of equal remuneration policies.

Overtime pay, another key labor standard, was inconsistently applied. While 60% of respondents received compensation for extra hours, 40% did not (Figure 4). This inconsistency undermines fair labor practices as outlined in ILO Convention No. 1 on Hours of Work and indicates gaps in monitoring and enforcement. Similarly, access to grievance procedures, essential for addressing workplace conflicts, was reported by 65% of respondents, leaving 35% without formal mechanisms (Figure 5). The lack of grievance systems for a sizable proportion of workers suggests inadequate institutional support, emphasizing the need for broader implementation of conflict resolution structures.

Overall, the findings present a mixed scenario. Positive aspects include the provision of wage orders to a majority, the presence of grievance systems for many, and partial compliance with equal pay standards. Nonetheless, critical gaps persist, particularly regarding leave entitlement, overtime compensation, and gender wage equity. These shortcomings indicate that while labor laws exist on paper, their practical implementation remains uneven. Addressing these challenges through strengthened enforcement, gender-sensitive wage policies, expanded leave benefits, and broader access to grievance systems is crucial to achieving fair treatment for all workers.

3.2 Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Status

The study also assessed the status of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) among workers, revealing both strengths and areas for improvement. Safety skill training was reported by 70% of respondents, leaving 30% without such preparation (Figure 6). This gap indicates that a substantial portion of workers may be ill-equipped to handle hazardous situations, underscoring the need for universal training programs. First aid availability, however, was high, with 90% of respondents confirming access (Figure 7). This reflects a robust preparedness for immediate medical needs, although universal coverage should be the goal. Access to professional medical care was reported by 65% of respondents, leaving 35% without adequate facilities (Figure 8), suggesting moderate gaps that could hinder timely treatment.

Alarmingly, only 20% of respondents reported the presence of proper security and preventive safety measures, whereas 80% lacked such protections (Figure 9). This highlights a critical vulnerability in proactive safety systems and indicates that most workplaces are reactive rather than preventive, increasing the risk of accidents and injuries. These findings suggest that while emergency response systems such as first aid are in place, preventive measures and structural safety enhancements require immediate attention.

3.3 Outcomes of OHS by Project Sites

A site-specific analysis of OHS outcomes across the Dhaka Elevated Expressway Project, MRT 6, and DCNUP projects reveals significant variation in safety practices. Regarding workers’ understanding of their health and safety responsibilities, Figure 10 indicates high awareness across all projects, with MRT 6 leading, followed closely by the Expressway Project. DCNUP, however, showed a comparatively higher proportion of respondents lacking awareness, pointing to potential communication or training gaps.

Safety discussions in the workplace, as shown in Figure 11, were generally frequent, with MRT 6 again showing the strongest performance. DCNUP lagged behind, suggesting a need for more structured discussions to reinforce safety culture. The use of Permit to Work (PTW) systems prior to tasks, illustrated in Figure 12, displayed stark differences. Both MRT 6 and the Expressway Project reported 100% compliance, reflecting strong procedural adherence. DCNUP, in contrast, showed a substantial shortfall, with nearly 80% of respondents indicating no PTW implementation, signaling a critical lapse in procedural safety.

Task-specific safety training, depicted in Figure 13, was notably insufficient across all sites. A majority of workers reported not receiving training tailored to their specific roles, with DCNUP performing the poorest, followed by MRT 6 and then the Expressway Project. Even where general safety awareness existed, the absence of task-specific preparation may elevate the risk of accidents, especially in high-hazard operations. These site-specific findings highlight uneven OHS practices, with some projects demonstrating robust compliance and others requiring urgent interventions.

In summary, the combined results underscore a complex reality. While there are encouraging indicators of worker awareness, first aid availability, and partial compliance with labor standards, persistent gaps in leave entitlement, gender wage equality, preventive safety measures, and task-specific training reveal systemic shortcomings. Economic disparities, modest housing conditions, and demographic characteristics further influence the vulnerabilities of workers. Addressing these gaps requires a multifaceted approach, integrating policy enforcement, worker education, gender-sensitive labor strategies, and investment in safe infrastructure. Strengthening both preventive and responsive OHS measures across project sites will not only improve workers’ well-being but also enhance productivity, morale, and the overall sustainability of labor practices in Bangladesh.

4. Recommendations

The study recommends establishing a dedicated OHS department in each project and ensuring regular safety training for contractors, employees, and supervisors. Contractors should be recruited transparently, with proper qualifications, and held accountable through fines or license suspension for non-compliance. A strong system for injury and hazard management must be in place, along with modern technology to control pollution and waste. Workers should receive proper PPE training, supported by incentives and penalties to ensure use. Additionally, grievance mechanisms and a separate safeguards unit should be established to plan, monitor, and audit labor and safety practices effectively.

5. Conclusion

This study provides a clear picture of workers’ conditions, highlighting both strengths and areas for improvement in labor safeguards and occupational health and safety (OHS). The demographic and income profiles show a young, healthy, but largely low-income population living in modest housing. While many workers receive wage orders, equal pay, and grievance support, significant challenges remain in leave entitlement, overtime payments, and gender equality. The OHS findings reveal good awareness of responsibilities and frequent safety discussions, yet gaps exist in training, hazard management, and preventive safety measures. Differences between project sites such as weak implementation of Permit to Work systems and limited job-specific training at DCNUP further underscore the need for consistent standards. Overall, the results point to the importance of stronger systems, transparent recruitment, better training, and accountability measures. Addressing these issues will not only safeguard workers’ rights and well-being but also improve productivity and ensure long-term project sustainability.

Author Contributions

M.M.H. designed the study, collected and analyzed the data, and prepared the manuscript.

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