Energy Environment and Economy
Energy, Environment and Sustainable Sciences | online ISSN 3069-0935
2
Citations
37.4k
Views
29
Articles
Volume 4 Number 1 2026
REVIEWS (Open Access)
Adaptive Coordination of Grid-Forming and Grid-Following Inverters for Stability in Renewable-Rich Distribution Networks: A Scoping Review
Prashanta Chakraborty1*
Energy Environment and Economy 4 (1) 1-8 https://doi.org/10.25163/energy.4110963
Submitted: 28 July 2026 Revised: 15 September 2026 Accepted: 22 September 2026 Published: 24 September 2026
Abstract
Background: The rapid integration of renewable energy resources is transforming distribution networks into inverter-dominated systems. The increasing penetration of grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) inverters introduces stability challenges, requiring adaptive coordination strategies to ensure reliable operation under dynamic grid conditions. Aims: This review aims to map existing adaptive GFM–GFL coordination approaches, stability objectives, methodologies, challenges, and future research directions. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following the PRISMA-ScR framework. Research articles published between 2015 and 2025 were systematically identified from major academic databases, including IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and SpringerLink. Studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data were extracted and categorized according to inverter type, coordination strategy, stability objective, control methodology, validation platform, and research theme to provide comprehensive evidence mapping. Results: The review identified a continuous increase in research activity on GFM–GFL inverter coordination, reflecting growing interest in renewable-rich distribution networks. Existing studies primarily focus on frequency stability enhancement, voltage regulation, and small-signal stability improvement. GFL approaches remain widely adopted, while GFM strategies such as droop control, virtual synchronous generator, and adaptive control methods are increasingly investigated for grid-supporting capabilities. Most studies rely on simulation-based validation using MATLAB/Simulink, PSCAD, and DIgSILENT PowerFactory, whereas hardware-in-the-loop and experimental validations remain limited. Key challenges include scalability, communication requirements, parameter tuning, and practical implementation. Conclusion: Adaptive GFM–GFL coordination provides a promising pathway for stable inverter-dominated networks; however, experimentally validated, scalable, and standardized frameworks require further development.
Keywords: Grid-forming inverter; Grid-following inverter; Adaptive coordination; Stability enhancement; Renewable-rich distribution networks; Scoping review.
References
Addai, M., & Musilek, P. (2026). Artificial Intelligence-Enhanced Droop Control for Renewable Energy-Based Microgrids: A Comprehensive Review. Electronics, 15(3), 707. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15030707
Adiche, S., Larbi, M., Toumi, D., Bouddou, R., Bajaj, M., Bouchikhi, N., Belabbes, A., & Zaitsev, I. (2024). Advanced control strategy for AC microgrids: a hybrid ANN-based adaptive PI controller with droop control and virtual impedance technique. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 31057. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-82193-1
Alshahrani, S., Khan, K., Abido, M., & Khalid, M. (2024). Grid-Forming Converter and Stability Aspects of Renewable-Based Low-Inertia Power Networks: Modern Trends and Challenges. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 49(5), 6187–6216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-023-08399-z
Arévalo, P., Ramos, C., & Rocha, A. (2025). A Systematic Review of Grid-Forming Control Techniques for Modern Power Systems and Microgrids. Energies, 18(14), 3888. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18143888
Babu, V. V., Roselyn, J. P., Nithya, C., & Sundaravadivel, P. (2024). Development of Grid-Forming and Grid-Following Inverter Control in Microgrid Network Ensuring Grid Stability and Frequency Response. Electronics, 13(10), 1958. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13101958
Bhukya, J. (2026). Damping controller implementation for sub-synchronous resonance mitigation in DFIG systems using real-time simulation. Electrical Engineering, 108(2), 114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00202-025-03469-x
Dolado, J., Rodríguez Amenedo, J. L., Arnaltes, S., & Eloy-Garcia, J. (2022). Improving the Inertial Response of a Grid-Forming Voltage Source Converter. Electronics, 11(15), 2303. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11152303
Dou, C., Zhang, Z., Yue, D., & Song, M. (2017). Improved droop control based on virtual impedance and virtual power source in low-voltage microgrid. IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution, 11(4), 1046–1054. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-gtd.2016.1492
Farabi Hasan Chadni, & Md Shahdat Hossain. (2023). Advanced Fault Analysis and Protection Strategies for Distribution Grids with High Renewable Energy Penetration. International Journal on Orange Technologies, 8(5), 139–148.
Gurski, E., Kuiava, R., Perez, F., Benedito, R. A. S., & Damm, G. (2024). A Novel VSG with Adaptive Virtual Inertia and Adaptive Damping Coefficient to Improve Transient Frequency Response of Microgrids. Energies, 17(17), 4370. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174370
Hakam, Y., & Tabaa, M. (2026). Grid-Forming Inverters in Photovoltaic Power Systems: A Comprehensive Review of Modeling, Control, and Stability Perspectives. Energies, 19(5), 1244. https://doi.org/10.3390/en19051244
Hollweg, G. V., Singh Chawda, G., Chaturvedi, S., Bui, V.-H., & Su, W. (2025). Optimization Techniques for Low-Level Control of DC–AC Converters in Renewable-Integrated Microgrids: A Brief Review. Energies, 18(6), 1429. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061429
Hossain, A., Oyebode, D., Imon, K. A. Al, Faisal, S. Md. W., & Vayyala, R. (2025). Analyzing how MIS can optimize the distribution of energy in smart grids, focusing on data-driven decision-making processes. Journal of Smart Internet of Things, 2025(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.2478/jsiot-2025-0004
Hossain, M. A. (2025). Residual Stress Mitigation and Distortion Control in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Components for High-Reliability Engineering Applications. American Journal of Advanced Technology and Engineering Solutions, 01(02), 173–215. https://doi.org/10.63125/1b3nyj37
Howlader, Md. N., Chowdhury, S., Al Imon, K. A., Khan, G. J., Mehedi, Md. K. H., Rabbi, Md. F., Islam, A., & Al Zami Alif, S. (2026). Design and implementation of a low-cost IoT-enabled dual-axis photovoltaic tracking system with experimental and simulation-based validation. Journal of Electrical Systems and Information Technology, 13(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43067-026-00351-z
Huang, L., Xin, H., Dong, W., & Dörfler, F. (2022). Impacts of Grid Structure on PLL-Synchronization Stability of Converter-Integrated Power Systems. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 55(13), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2022.07.270
Jain, H., Bhatti, B. A., Wu, T., Mather, B., & Broadwater, R. (2020). Integrated Transmission-and-Distribution System Modeling of Power Systems: State-of-the-Art and Future Research Directions. Energies, 14(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010012
Jeyaraj, K., Durairaj, D., & Velusamy, A. I. S. (2020). Development and performance analysis of PSO-optimized sliding mode controller–based dynamic voltage restorer for power quality enhancement. International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems, 30(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/2050-7038.12243
Kazi Abdullah Al Imon, Abdullah Al Hossain Newaz, & Nasir Uddin, I. K. T. (2022). Electromechanical Integration for Hybrid Solar and Wind Energy Systems: A Case for Maximized Renewable Energy Capture. Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental, 16(3), 1–37.
Khan, M., Wu, W., & Li, L. (2024). Grid-forming control for inverter-based resources in power systems: A review on its operation, system stability, and prospective. IET Renewable Power Generation, 18(6), 887–907. https://doi.org/10.1049/rpg2.12991
Liao, Z., Hu, Q., Huang, Z., Ge, J., Yang, D., & Ma, X. (2026). A Seamless Transition Control Strategy Based on Adaptive Fusion Between Grid-Following and Grid-Forming Inverters for Wide-Ranging Grid-Strength Fluctuations. Electronics, 15(6), 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15061298
Liu, Y., Zhu, L., Xu, X., Li, D., Liang, Z., & Ye, N. (2025). Transient Synchronization Stability in Grid-Following Converters: Mechanistic Insights and Technological Prospects—A Review. Energies, 18(8), 1975. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18081975
Lyu, Z., Wei, Q., Zhang, Y., Zhao, J., & Manla, E. (2018). Adaptive Virtual Impedance Droop Control Based on Consensus Control of Reactive Current. Energies, 11(7), 1801. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11071801
Ma, R., Cheng, Y., Wang, S., Sun, S., & Cong, W. (2026). Generalized Dynamic Security Region of Grid-Following and Grid-Forming Converter-Based Systems by Basin of Attraction Method. Applied Sciences, 16(4), 2130. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16042130
Matevosyan, J., Halley, A., Ramasubramanian, D., Shattuck, A., Macdowell, J. M., Senthil, J., Acosta, M. C., Isaacs, A., Badrzadeh, B., Zhang, Q., Maleki, H., & Samarasekera, K. (2024). Considerations, Challenges and Evolution in Dynamic Modeling of Synchronous Machines and Inverter-Based Resources (pp. 351–435). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47821-5_8
Md Arman Hossain, Md Abdul Aziz Bhuiyan, Atiqur Rahman, & Dewan Wardy Hasan. (2024). Integration of Artificial Intelligence for Real-Time Monitoring and Process Control in Metal Additive Manufacturing Systems. Journal of Mechanical, Civil and Industrial Engineering, 5(3), 08–28. https://doi.org/10.32996/jmcie.2024.5.3.2
Md Arman Hossain, Shipon Chandra Barman, Wei Pi, & S M Tarikul Islam. (2022). A Study on Hybrid Manufacturing Systems Integrating Additive Manufacturing and CNC Machining for High-Precision Industrial Component Production. Journal of Mechanical, Civil and Industrial Engineering, 3(2), 24–41. https://doi.org/10.32996/jmcie.2022.3.2.4
Md Arman Hossain, Wei Pi, S M Tarikul Islam, & Mohaiminul Islam Lide. (2021). Smart Manufacturing Framework for Real-Time Process Monitoring, Predictive Maintenance, and Quality Control in Advanced Mechanical Production Systems. Journal of Mechanical, Civil and Industrial Engineering, 2(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.32996/jmcie.2021.2.1.3
Md Shahdat Hossain, & Md Atiqur Rahman. (2022). Integration of Solar Thermal Energy and Solar Electricity Generation for Sustainable Power Production. Central Asian Journal of Theoretical and Applied Science, 3(5), 415–424.
Md Shahdat Hossain, & Md Atiqur Rahman. (2024). Optimization of Series and Shunt Capacitor Compensation for Power Factor Improvement in Electrical Power Systems. American Journal of Engineering, Mechanics and Architecture, 2(3), 220–228.
Minchala-Ávila, C., Arévalo, P., & Ochoa-Correa, D. (2025). A Systematic Review of Model Predictive Control for Robust and Efficient Energy Management in Electric Vehicle Integration and V2G Applications. Modelling, 6(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/modelling6010020
Moore, P., Alimi, O. A., & Abu-Siada, A. (2025). A Review of System Strength and Inertia in Renewable-Energy-Dominated Grids: Challenges, Sustainability, and Solutions. Challenges, 16(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe16010012
Nurunnabi, M., & Li, S. (2026). Protection in Inverter-Dominated Grids: Fault Behavior of Grid-Following vs. Grid-Forming Inverters and Mixed Architectures—A Review. Energies, 19(3), 684. https://doi.org/10.3390/en19030684
Ozkurt, H., Sari, F., Taner, T., & Dalkilic, A. S. (2026). Optimization and OGY-based chaos control of a bistable piezoelectric energy harvester for enhanced power generation. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-63120-y
Qiao, Y., Li, W., & Guo, D. (2026). AI-enhanced model predictive control in microgrids: systematic review of algorithms, applications, and emerging trends. Journal of Power Electronics, 26(4), 831–842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43236-026-01312-5
Rahman, Md. A., Prantik, M. F. R., Islam, S. M. T., Rahman, A., Masum, S. H., & Hossain, M. A. (2026). Hyperdimensional computing and ridge regression for airfoil aerodynamic prediction?: A physics-informed machine learning framework. Aerospace Science and Technology, 171, 111591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2025.111591
Rahman, Md. M., & Mohamed, Y. A.-R. I. (2023). Interaction Dynamics and Active Suppression of Instability in Parallel Photovoltaic Voltage-and Current-Source Converters Connected to a Weak Grid. IEEE Open Journal of Power Electronics, 4, 395–414. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJPEL.2023.3275610
Richter, M., Kuri, A., Richter, J., Wagner, T., Henninger, S., & Mehlmann, G. (2025). Demonstration of Grid-Forming Controls in Hybrid AC/DC Grid in a Real-Time PHiL Environment. Electronics, 14(4), 730. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14040730
Rostami, M., Habibi, P., & Farajollahi, A. (2026). Fuzzy energy management using a chaotic model to improve fuel consumption of fuel cell-battery hybrid fixed-wing UAVs operating under uncertainty control. Scientific Reports, 16(1), 4196. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34306-7
Sati, S. E., Abdelghany, M. B., Hamad, B., Al-Durra, A., Zeineldin, H. H., EL-Fouly, T. H. M., & El-Saadany, E. F. (2025). Economic Power-Sharing and Stability Enhancement for Virtual Synchronous Generators in Islanded MG. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 40(1), 188–203. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2024.3413299
Suvorov, A., Askarov, A., Ruban, N., Rudnik, V., Radko, P., Achitaev, A., & Suslov, K. (2023). An Adaptive Inertia and Damping Control Strategy Based on Enhanced Virtual Synchronous Generator Model. Mathematics, 11(18), 3938. https://doi.org/10.3390/math11183938
Tasnia, R., & Hossain, M. S. (2026). Investment Barriers and Financing Solutions for Critical Energy Infrastructure Projects. Pacific Journal of Advanced Engineering Innovations, 3(1), 89–96. https://doi.org/10.70818/pjaei.v03i01.0246
Ullah, S. M. E., Ullah, M. S., & Hossain, M. S. (2025). Design and Implementation of Digital Protection Systems for High-Voltage Transmission Lines and Power Transformers. Journal of Knowledge Learning and Science Technology ISSN: 2959-6386 (Online), 4(4), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.60087/jklst.vol4.n4.015
Wang, X., Sun, K., Xu, Z., Li, M., Cao, G., & Li, K. (2026). A Systematic Review of Grid Following, Grid Forming and Mode Switching Control in MVDC Distribution Networks. IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1049/gtd2.70273
Waskito, F., Wijaya, F. D., & Firmansyah, E. (2025). Review of Virtual Inertia Based on Synchronous Generator Characteristic Emulation in Renewable Energy-Dominated Power Systems. Electricity, 6(4), 69. https://doi.org/10.3390/electricity6040069
Xiaoyu, P., Feng, L., Peng, Y., Beisi, T., Pengfei, G., & Zhaojian, W. (2026). Measuring Short-term Voltage Stability of Power Systems Dominated by Inverter-based Resources Part II: Port-wise Generalized Voltage Damping Index. Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, 14(1), 82–94. https://doi.org/10.35833/MPCE.2024.001298
Xiong, X., & Luo, B. (2025). Impedance Reshaping Method Based on Compensating PLL Dynamic to Improve Active Power Transfer Capability of VSC Under Weak Grid. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 40(1), 422–434. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2024.3459094
Article metrics
View details
0
Downloads
0
Citations
38
Views
0
Save
Save
0
Citation
Citation
38
View
View
0
Share
Share