Current Perspective on Pesticides: Their Classification, Behaviour, Potential Use and Toxic Effects

Adil Ahamad^1*, Javed Ahamad², Mohd. Javed Naim²

Monitoring the use of pesticide and analyzing their acceptable levels for human health.

Abstract

The employment of extensive range of chemical to save their crops from disastrous effects of pests is an important aspect worldwide in order to increase the crop yields and minimizing post-harvest losses. It is estimated that approximately 1.8 billion people are engaged in agriculture and majority of them use pesticides to protect food and commercial products they produce. Pesticides are indispensable in agricultural production. The intensive use of toxic and remanent pesticides in agriculture has prompted research into novel performant, yet cost-effective and fast analytical tools to control the pesticide residue levels in the environment and food; because of the raised concern about their potential adverse effects on human health with farm workers being more prone to them. Also, lack of information among the farm workers and unregulated quantities usage leads to further raised their presence to toxic levels among the crops and finally to humans leading to several diseases like cancer, immunological disorders, and reproductive disorders etc. Synthetic organic pesticides (i.e., man-made, carbon-containing chemicals) includes chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, phenoxy herbicides etc. Pesticides are classified on the basis of different classification terms such as chemical classes, functional groups, modes of action and toxicity. This review proposes an overview of recent advances in the use of pesticide and their possible toxic profile.

Keywords: Pesticides, Pest control, Herbicides, Insecticides, Fungicides.

References

Abdollahi, M., Mostafalou, S., Pournourmohammadi, S., & Shadnia, S. (2004). Oxidative stress and cholinesterase inhibition in saliva and plasma of rats following subchronic exposure to malathion. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 137(1), 29-34.

Abubakar, Y., Tijjani, H., Egbuna, C., Adetunji, C. O., Kala, S., Kryeziu, T. L., ... & Patrick-Iwuanyanwu, K. C. (2020). Pesticides, history, and classification. In Natural remedies for pest, disease and weed control (pp. 29-42). Academic Press.

Ahamad, A., & Kumar, J. (2023). Pyrethroid pesticides: An overview on classification, toxicological assessment and monitoring. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 100284.

Aktar, M. W., Paramasivam, M., Sengupta, D., Purkait, S., Ganguly, M., & Banerjee, S. (2009). Impact assessment of pesticide residues in fish of Ganga river around Kolkata in West Bengal. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 157, 97-104.

Aktar, M. W., Sengupta, D., & Chowdhury, A. (2009). Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 2(1), 1.

Alavanja, M. C., Sprince, N. L., Oliver, E., Whitten, P., Lynch, C. F., Gillette, P. P., ... & Zwerling, C. (2001). Nested case-control analysis of high pesticide exposure events from the Agricultural Health Study. American journal of industrial medicine, 39(6), 557-563.

Amaral, A. F. (2014). Pesticides and asthma: challenges for epidemiology. Frontiers in public health, 2, 6.

Amr, M. M., Halim, Z. S., & Moussa, S. S. (1997). Psychiatric disorders among Egyptian pesticide applicators and formulators. Environmental research, 73(1-2), 193-199.

Anees, M. A. (1974). Susceptibility of a Freshwater Teleost Channa Punctatus to Acute, Sublethal and Chronic Levels of Organophosphorus Insecticides. University of the Punjab (Pakistan).

Atwood, D., & Paisley-Jones, C. (2017). Pesticides industry sales and usage: 2008–2012 market estimates. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 20460, 2017-01.

Azmi, M. A., & Naqvi, S. N. H. (2011). Pesticide pollution, resistance and health hazards. Pesticides-The Impacts of Pesticides Exposure, 26.

Azmi, M. A., Naqvi, S. N. H., Azmi, M. A., & Aslam, M. (2006). Effect of pesticide residues on health and different enzyme levels in the blood of farm workers from Gadap (rural area) Karachi—Pakistan. Chemosphere, 64(10), 1739-1744.

Bagchi, D., Bagchi, M., Hassoun, E. A., & Stohs, S. J. (1995). In vitro and in vivo generation of reactive oxygen species, DNA damage and lactate dehydrogenase leakage by selected pesticides. Toxicology, 104(1-3), 129-140.

Barthel, E. (1981). Increased risk of lung cancer in pesticide-exposed male agricultural workers. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A Current Issues, 8(5-6), 1027-1040.

Beard, J. D., Umbach, D. M., Hoppin, J. A., Richards, M., Alavanja, M. C., Blair, A., ... & Kamel, F. (2014). Pesticide exposure and depression among male private pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study. Environmental health perspectives, 122(9), 984-991.

Bernardes, M. F. F., Pazin, M., Pereira, L. C., & Dorta, D. J. (2015). Impact of pesticides on environmental and human health. Toxicology studies-cells, drugs and environment, 195-233.

Bhalli, J. A., Khan, Q. M., Haq, M. A., Khalid, A. M., & Nasim, A. (2006). Cytogenetic analysis of Pakistani individuals occupationally exposed to pesticides in a pesticide production industry. Mutagenesis, 21(2), 143-148.

Bradberry, S. M., & Vale, J. A. (2017). Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 89.

Cabello, G., Valenzuela, M., Vilaxa, A., Durán, V., Rudolph, I., Hrepic, N., & Calaf, G. (2001). A rat mammary tumor model induced by the organophosphorous pesticides parathion and malathion, possibly through acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Environmental health perspectives, 109(5), 471-479.

Calvert, G. M., Plate, D. K., Das, R., Rosales, R., Shafey, O., Thomsen, C., ... & Lackovic, M. (2004). Acute occupational pesticide-related illness in the US, 1998–1999: surveillance findings from the SENSOR-pesticides program. American journal of industrial medicine, 45(1), 14-23.

Carvalho, F. P. (2017). Pesticides, environment, and food safety. Food and energy security, 6(2), 48-60.

Carvalho, W. A. (1991). Risk factors related with occupational and environmental exposure to organochlorine insecticides in the state of Bahia, Brazil, 1985. Boletin de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana. Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 111(6), 512-524.

Chan, T. Y. K., & Critchley, J. A. J. H. (1998). Insecticide poisoning with organophosphates and carbamates. HONG KONG PRACTITIONER, 20, 604-614.

Chowdhary, S., Bhattacharyya, R., & Banerjee, D. (2014). Acute organophosphorus poisoning. Clinica chimica acta, 431, 66-76.

Cooper, J., & Dobson, H. (2007). The benefits of pesticides to mankind and the environment. Crop Protection, 26(9), 1337-1348.

Damalas, C. A., & Eleftherohorinos, I. G. (2011). Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators. International journal of environmental research and public health, 8(5), 1402-1419.

Damalas, C. A., & Koutroubas, S. D. (2016). Farmers’ exposure to pesticides: toxicity types and ways of prevention. Toxics, 4(1), 1.

Dhouib, I. B., Annabi, A., Jallouli, M., Marzouki, S., Gharbi, N., Elfazaa, S., & Lasram, M. M. (2016). Carbamates pesticides induced immunotoxicity and carcinogenicity in human: A review. Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 14(2), 85-90.

Di Blasio, A., Bertolini, S., Gili, M., Avolio, R., Leogrande, M., Ostorero, F., ... & Zoppi, S. (2020). Local context and environment as risk factors for acute poisoning in animals in northwest Italy. Science of the Total Environment, 709, 136016.

do Nascimento, C. P., Maretto, G. X., Marques, G. L. M., Passamani, L. M., Abdala, A. P., Schenberg, L. C., ... & Sampaio, K. N. (2017). Methamidophos, an organophosphorus insecticide, induces pro-aggressive behaviour in mice. Neurotoxicity research, 32, 398-408.

El-Demerdash, F. M., Yousef, M. I., & Elagamy, E. I. (2001). Influence of paraquat, glyphosate, and cadmium on the activity of some serum enzymes and protein electrophoretic behavior (in vitro). Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 36(1), 29-42.

Eyer, P. (2003). The role of oximes in the management of organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Toxicological reviews, 22, 165-190.

Fareed, M., Kesavachandran, C. N., Pathak, M. K., Bihari, V., Kuddus, M., & Srivastava, A. K. (2012). Visual disturbances with cholinesterase depletion due to exposure of agricultural pesticides among farm workers. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 94(8), 1601-1609.

Fenik, J., Tankiewicz, M., & Biziuk, M. (2011). Properties and determination of pesticides in fruits and vegetables. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 30(6), 814-826.

Freeman, S., Kaufman-Shriqui, V., Berman, T., Varsano, R., Shahar, D. R., & Manor, O. (2016). Children's diets, pesticide uptake, and implications for risk assessment: An Israeli case study. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 87, 88-96.

Gilden, R. C., Huffling, K., & Sattler, B. (2010). Pesticides and health risks. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 39(1), 103-110.

Grilo, A., Moreira, A., Carrapiço, B., Belas, A., & São Braz, B. (2021). Epidemiological study of pesticide poisoning in domestic animals and wildlife in Portugal: 2014–2020. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 616293.

Harper, H. A., Rodwell, V. W., & Mayes, P. A. (1979). The fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin A. Review of physiological chemistry. 17th edition., Lange. Medical Publication, Los Altos, California, 148.

Hazarika, A., Sarkar, S. N., Hajare, S., Kataria, M., & Malik, J. K. (2003). Influence of malathion pretreatment on the toxicity of anilofos in male rats: a biochemical interaction study. Toxicology, 185(1-2), 1-8.

Hernández, A. F., Gómez, M. A., Pérez, V., García-Lario, J. V., Pena, G., Gil, F., ... & Pla, A. (2006). Influence of exposure to pesticides on serum components and enzyme activities of cytotoxicity among intensive agriculture farmers. Environmental research, 102(1), 70-76.

Hsu, D. Z., Hsu, C. H., Huang, B. M., & Liu, M. Y. (2001). Abamectin effects on aspartate aminotransferase and nitric oxide in rats. Toxicology, 165(2-3), 189-193.

Isman, M. B. (2006). Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly regulated world. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 51, 45-66.

Jaga, K., & Dharmani, C. (2006). Ocular toxicity from pesticide exposure: A recent review. Environmental health and preventive medicine, 11, 102-107.

Jeyaratnam, J. (1990). Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem. World health statistics quarterly 1990; 43 (3): 139-144.

Jones, R. L., Hunt, T. W., Norris, F. A., & Harden, C. F. (1989). Field research studies on the movement and degradation of thiodicarb and its metabolite methomyl. Journal of contaminant hydrology, 4(4), 359-371.

Jørs, E., Morant, R. C., Aguilar, G. C., Huici, O., Lander, F., Bælum, J., & Konradsen, F. (2006). Occupational pesticide intoxications among farmers in Bolivia: a cross-sectional study. Environmental Health, 5(1), 1-9.

Kamel, F., & Hoppin, J. A. (2004). Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environmental health perspectives, 112(9), 950-958.

Kim, K. H., Kabir, E., & Jahan, S. A. (2017). Exposure to pesticides and the associated human health effects. Science of the total environment, 575, 525-535.

Kishi, M., Hirschhorn, N., Djajadisastra, M., Satterlee, L. N., Strowman, S., & Dilts, R. (1995). Relationship of pesticide spraying to signs and symptoms in Indonesian farmers. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health, 124-133.

Kumar Singh, A., Nath Tiwari, M., Prakash, O., & Pratap Singh, M. (2012). A current review of cypermethrin-induced neurotoxicity and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Current neuropharmacology, 10(1), 64-71.

Liang, C. A., Chang, S. S., Chen, H. Y., Tsai, K. F., Lee, W. C., Wang, I. K., ... & Yen, T. H. (2023). Human Poisoning with Methomyl and Cypermethrin Pesticide Mixture. Toxics, 11(4), 372.

Liu, Y., Mo, R., Tang, F., Fu, Y., & Guo, Y. (2015). Influence of different formulations on chlorpyrifos behavior and risk assessment in bamboo forest of China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 20245-20254.

Manna, S., Bhattacharyya, D., Mandal, T. K., & Das, S. (2004). Repeated dose toxicity of alfa-cypermethrin in rats. Journal of veterinary science, 5(3), 241-245.

Mansour, S. A. (2004). Pesticide exposure—Egyptian scene. Toxicology, 198(1-3), 91-115.

Marie, L., Sylvain, P., Benoit, G., Maurice, M., & Gwenaël, I. (2017). Degradation and transport of the chiral herbicide s-metolachlor at the catchment scale: Combining observation scales and analytical approaches. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(22), 13231-13240.

Mason, H. J. (2000). The recovery of plasma cholinesterase and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase activity in workers after over-exposure to dichlorvos. Occupational Medicine, 50(5), 343-347.

McCauley, L. A., Anger, W. K., Keifer, M., Langley, R., Robson, M. G., & Rohlman, D. (2006). Studying health outcomes in farmworker populations exposed to pesticides. Environmental health perspectives, 114(6), 953-960.

Mcmahon TF, Chen J. US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pesticide Programs 2001.

Michalek, J. E., Ketchum, N. S., & Longnecker, M. P. (2001). Serum dioxin and hepatic abnormalities in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand. Annals of epidemiology, 11(5), 304-311.

Misra, U. K., Nag, D., Bhushan, V., & Ray, P. K. (1985). Clinical and biochemical changes in chronically exposed organophosphate workers. Toxicology letters, 24(2-3), 187-193.

Motaung, T. E. (2020). Chloronicotinyl insecticide imidacloprid: Agricultural relevance, pitfalls and emerging opportunities. Crop Protection, 131, 105097.

Muniz, J. F., McCauley, L., Scherer, J., Lasarev, M., Koshy, M., Kow, Y. W., ... & Kisby, G. E. (2008). Biomarkers of oxidative stress and DNA damage in agricultural workers: a pilot study. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 227(1), 97-107.

Muñoz-Quezada, M. T., Lucero, B., Iglesias, V., Levy, K., Muñoz, M. P., Achú, E., ... & Villalobos, M. (2017). Exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides and health conditions in agricultural and non-agricultural workers from Maule, Chile. International journal of environmental health research, 27(1), 82-93.

Naravaneni, R., & Jamil, K. (2007). Determination of AChE levels and genotoxic effects in farmers occupationally exposed to pesticides. Human & experimental toxicology, 26(9), 723-731.

Nielsen, E. G. (1987). The magnitude and costs of groundwater contamination from agricultural chemicals: A national perspective (No. 576). US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nougadère, A., Sirot, V., Cravedi, J. P., Vasseur, P., Feidt, C., Fussell, R. J., ... & Hulin, M. (2020). Dietary exposure to pesticide residues and associated health risks in infants and young children–results of the French infant total diet study. Environment international, 137, 105529.

Ortiz-Hernández, M. L., Sánchez-Salinas, E., Dantán-González, E., & Castrejón-Godínez, M. L. (2013). Pesticide biodegradation: mechanisms, genetics and strategies to enhance the process. Biodegradation-life of Science, 10, 251-287.

Pimentel, D. (2005). Environmental and economic costs of the application of pesticides primarily in the United States. Environment, development and sustainability, 7, 229-252.

Pimentel, D., Acquay, H., Biltonen, M., Rice, P., Silva, M., Nelson, J., ... & D'amore, M. (1992). Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use. BioScience, 42(10), 750-760.

Prakasam, A., Sethupathy, S., & Lalitha, S. (2001). Plasma and RBCs antioxidant status in occupational male pesticide sprayers. Clinica Chimica Acta, 310(2), 107-112.

Rauf, A., Karam, A., Rashid, I., & Ashiq, M. (2002). Acute poisoning due to commercial pesticides in Multan.

Repetto, R., & Baliga, S. S. (1996). Pesticides and the immune system: the public health risks (p. 100). Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

Rivero, A., Vezilier, J., Weill, M., Read, A. F., & Gandon, S. (2010). Insecticide control of vector-borne diseases: when is insecticide resistance a problem?. PLoS pathogens, 6(8), e1001000.

Robinson, D. E., Mansingh, A., & Dasgupta, T. P. (1999). Fate and transport of ethoprophos in the Jamaican environment. Science of the total environment, 237, 373-378.

Roldán-Tapia, L., Leyva, A., Laynez, F., & Santed, F. S. (2005). Chronic neuropsychological sequelae of cholinesterase inhibitors in the absence of structural brain damage: two cases of acute poisoning. Environmental health perspectives, 113(6), 762-766.

Rusyniak, D. E., & Nañagas, K. A. (2004, June). Organophosphate poisoning. In Seminars in neurology (Vol. 24, No. 02, pp. 197-204). Copyright© 2004 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Salvatore, A. L., Bradman, A., Castorina, R., Camacho, J., López, J., Barr, D. B., ... & Eskenazi, B. (2008). Occupational behaviors and farmworkers' pesticide exposure: findings from a study in Monterey County, California. American journal of industrial medicine, 51(10), 782-794.

Salvi, R. M., Lara, D. R., Ghisolfi, E. S., Portela, L. V., Dias, R. D., & Souza, D. O. (2003). Neuropsychiatric evaluation in subjects chronically exposed to organophosphate pesticides. Toxicological Sciences, 72(2), 267-271.

Scholtz, M. T., & Bidleman, T. F. (2007). Modelling of the long-term fate of pesticide residues in agricultural soils and their surface exchange with the atmosphere: Part II. Projected long-term fate of pesticide residues. Science of the total environment, 377(1), 61-80.

Shadnia, S., Azizi, E., Hosseini, R., Khoei, S., Fouladdel, S., Pajoumand, A., ... & Abdollahi, M. (2005). Evaluation of oxidative stress and genotoxicity in organophosphorus insecticide formulators. Human & experimental toxicology, 24(9), 439-445.

Shou-zhen, X. (1987). Health effects of pesticides: a review of epidemiologic research from the perspective of developing nations. American journal of industrial medicine, 12(3), 269-279.

Singh, S., & Sharma, N. (2000). Neurological syndromes following organophosphate poisoning. Neurology India, 48(4), 308.

Singh, V. K., Reddy, M. K., Kesavachandran, C., Rastogi, S. K., & Siddiqui, M. K. J. (2007). Biomonitoring of organochlorines, glutathione, lipid peroxidation and cholinesterase activity among pesticide sprayers in mango orchards. Clinica chimica acta, 377(1-2), 268-272.

Smit, L. A., van-Wendel-de-Joode, B. N., Heederik, D., Peiris-John, R. J., & van der Hoek, W. (2003). Neurological symptoms among Sri Lankan farmers occupationally exposed to acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides. American journal of industrial medicine, 44(3), 254-264.

Strong, L. L., Thompson, B., Coronado, G. D., Griffith, W. C., Vigoren, E. M., & Islas, I. (2004). Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. American journal of industrial medicine, 46(6), 599-606.

Syafrudin, M., Kristanti, R. A., Yuniarto, A., Hadibarata, T., Rhee, J., Al-Onazi, W. A., ... & Al-Mohaimeed, A. M. (2021). Pesticides in drinking water—a review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(2), 468.

Townson, H. (1992). Public health impact of pesticides used in agriculture: Geneva: World Health Organization, 1990. 128 pp. Price Sw. fr. 21.00. ISBN 92-4-156139-4.

Trautmann, N. M., Porter, K. S., & Wagenet, R. H. (1985). Pesticides: health effects in drinking water.

Tudi, M., Li, H., Li, H., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Yang, L., ... & Connell, D. (2022). Exposure routes and health risks associated with pesticide application. Toxics, 10(6), 335.

Vidyasagar, J., Karunakar, N., Reddy, M. S., Rajnarayana, K., Surender, T., & Krishna, D. R. (2004). Oxidative stress and antioxidant status in acute organophosphorous insecticide poisoning. Indian journal of pharmacology, 36(2), 76.

Wang, J., & Leung, D. (2009). Applications of ultra-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry on analysis of 138 pesticides in fruit-and vegetable-based infant foods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(6), 2162-2173.

Ward, M. H., Nuckols, J. R., Weigel, S. J., Maxwell, S. K., Cantor, K. P., & Miller, R. S. (2000). Identifying populations potentially exposed to agricultural pesticides using remote sensing and a Geographic Information System. Environmental health perspectives, 108(1), 5-12.

Weber, J., Halsall, C. J., Muir, D., Teixeira, C., Small, J., Solomon, K., ... & Bidleman, T. (2010). Endosulfan, a global pesticide: a review of its fate in the environment and occurrence in the Arctic. Science of the Total Environment, 408(15), 2966-2984.

WHO, G. (2010). The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and guidelines to classification 2009.

Yang, C. C., & Deng, J. F. (2007). Intermediate syndrome following organophosphate insecticide poisoning. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association, 70(11), 467-472.

Yousef, M. I., Awad, T. I., & Mohamed, E. H. (2006). Deltamethrin-induced oxidative damage and biochemical alterations in rat and its attenuation by Vitamin E. Toxicology, 227(3), 240-247.

Zahm, S. H., & Blair, A. (1992). Pesticides and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer Research, 52(19_Supplement), 5485s-5488s.

Zanella, R., Prestes, O. D., Friggi, C. D. A., Martins, M. L., & Adaime, M. B. (2012). An overview about recent advances in sample preparation techniques for pesticide residues analysis in cereals and feedstuffs. Pesticides: Recent trends pesticide residue assay, 149-170.